Ambient noise tomography with a large seismic array

The emergence of large-scale arrays of seismometers across several continents presents the opportunity to image the Earth's structure at unprecedented resolution, but methods must be developed to exploit the capabilities of these deployments. The capabilities and limitations of a method called " eikonal tomography" applied to ambient noise data are discussed here. In this method, surface wave wavefronts are tracked across an array and the gradient of the travel time field produces estimates of phase slowness and propagation direction. Application data from more than 1000 stations from EarthScope USArray in the central and western US and new Rayleigh wave isotropic and anisotropic phase velocity maps are presented together with an isotropic and azimuthally anisotropic 3D Vs model of the crust and uppermost mantle. As a ray theoretic method, eikonal tomography models bent rays but not other wavefield complexities. We present evidence, based on the systematics of an observed 1. ψ component of anisotropy that we interpret as anisotropic bias caused by backscattering near an observing station, that finite frequency phenomena can be ignored in ambient noise tomography at periods shorter than ~ 40 to 50. s. At longer periods a higher order term based on wavefront amplitudes or finite frequency sensitivity kernels must be introduced if the amplitude of isotropic anomalies and the amplitude and fast-axis direction of azimuthal anisotropy are to be determined accurately.