In an uncertain world, errors are more aversive: Evidence from the error-related negativity

Unpredictability increases amygdala activity and vigilance toward threat. The error-related negativity (ERN) is an electrophysiological response to errors and is posited to reflect sensitivity to potential threat. The present study examined whether the ERN was modulated by predictable or unpredictable taskirrelevant auditory stimuli. Twenty-three participants completed a speeded response task designed to elicit the ERN, and were simultaneously exposed to predictable and unpredictable tone sequences. Participants retrospectively rated their anxiety to the predictable and unpredictable tone sequences and indicated which tone sequence they disliked the most. Unpredictable tones were rated as slightly more anxiety-provoking compared to predictable tones, but participants were evenly split regarding which sequence they disliked the most. Fewer errors were committed during unpredictable relative to predictable tones. Finally, the ERN-but not the correct response negativity (CRN)-was increased during unpredictable relative to predictable tones. The present study demonstrated that an unpredictable context can increase vigilance and potentiate neural processing of errors. These data suggest that an unpredictable environmental context may increase error value. Implications for understanding anxiety disorders are discussed.