Variation of life history traits and mating patterns in female langur monkeys (Semnopithecus entellus)

To determine nutritional and social influences on life history traits and mating behavior in female langur monkeys, new long-term data for a feral population living in multi-male groups under poor nutritional conditions are presented and compared with published long-term data for the same species living in one-male groups under excellent nutritional conditions. Under poor nutritional conditions, conceptions were confined to 5 months per year, coinciding with the period of the highest mating activity. Age at first parturition, gestation periods, lactation periods, and interbirth intervals were all significantly increased resulting in a more than 50% reduced reproductive rate under poor conditions. The pattern of sexual behavior during gestation was influenced by neither nutritional nor social conditions but the frequency was higher in multi-male groups. Furthermore, estrus length was significantly increased in multi-male groups where females tended to mate with as many resident males as available. Both phenomena, together with a high percentage of sexual behavior occurring outside the mid-cycle estrus, are interpreted in the light of paternity confusion in multi-male groups in a species where infanticide by males is regularly observed. The extreme variation in life history traits and mating patterns disclosed here in one species suggests that future cross-species comparisons should strictly select datasets based on local ecological and social conditions.